While an isolated and reclusive nation prior to the twentieth century, the closing months of the First World War would see Japan begin to make itself known to the Western world. In a century, the small island would manage to build one of the most formidable militaries the world has ever known, decimate numbers of opponents – including the United States, and become the only nation to be subjected to atomic warfare. Recovering from such a defeat, the nation would become not only the technological leader of the twenty-first century but also spread its influence so effectively that parts of Japanese culture would forever be ingrained into nearly every other culture across the globe. How did Japan expand so rapidly from that small, reclusive nation to the global influence it has today? Much of that can be answered by assessing its military strategies and its spread of imperialism.
Bushido, or the “Way of the Warrior”, is a code of ethics that originated with the samurai class in feudal Japan. While its traditional values, honor, loyalty, self-discipline, and respect, were closely associated with samurai warriors, bushido has evolved over the centuries and continues to influence modern Japanese society, including its military. The purpose of this work is to assess the ways in which Japanese society has not only been largely dominated by bushido principles in all facets, but also how its influence has spread globally as no other culture ever has. When we consider modern Japanese history, much is the subject of the Pacific War. However, other than this well-studied subject, especially in the views of Western powers, little is to be said of the impact of Japanese history in a modern perspective. You will be hard-pressed to find an individual, especially in second and first-world nations, that has not been impacted by Japanese culture; Whether this be economically, technologically, socially, or through cuisine, art or television, Japanese culture has spread more globally than any other culture. This work aims to consider the shift in Japanese culture, largely throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and how the principles of bushido specifically impacted the course of Japan’s global influence but truly culminated with military imperialism after the conclusion of the First World War.
Bushido As We Know It
Prior to the Tokugawa Period, also known as the Edo Period, is widely accepted by scholars to encompass 1600-1868, Japan was largely a reclusive and agrarian society with a decentralized government practice in which still resembled a feudal-based society that largely avoided exterior interaction. Before the arrival of Commodore Matthew Perry in the mid-nineteenth century, Japan was relatively ignored by Western powers, and due to its geographical location, was able to avoid attracting their attention, remaining largely opposite of the growing modernization in Western nations. This changed when an expeditionary force led by American naval officer Commodore Matthew Perry sailed to Tokyo Bay and essentially forced Japan to open trade routes with Western nations. This would effectively end Japan’s isolationism and bring the Tokugawa Shogunate to its fall in 1868, establishing the Meji Restoration and the Empire of Japan. It would also begin the spread of Japanese influence through popular culture via exports of Japanese art, clothing styles, kabuki theatre, and porcelain.[1]
When considering the rise of Imperialism in Japan, eventually leading to its global spread in every facet by the twenty-first century, we must look at the Japanese military which was ever important in the expansion and influence of Japan. Little known to the western world, Yamaga Soko, a Japanese military theorist and philosopher under the Tokugawa Shogunate, is highly regarded as one of the most prominent figures in the history of bushido. Though only small amounts of his work have been translated, The Way of the Samurai is possibly one of the most imperative to understanding not only the societal construct of Japan, but where religious and philosophical principles would dominate every facet of life, culminating into a very honor-pbound culture that would define it even into the modern age. Bushido is still practiced in many facets of Japanese culture in the twenty-first century, but during its early years, it was a non-negotiable expectation, especially in the military setting. Bushido itself is deeply rooted in Zen Buddhism, and stresses the importance of honor and loyalty, but also frugality, kindness and respect to one’s family. However, honor was of the upmost importance, even above one’s own life.
Author Shuzo Uenaka dictates a surprisingly comprehensive look at military strategist and philosopher Yamaga Soko’s background in “Last Testament in Exile. Yamaga Sokō’s Haisho Zampitsu.” Though somewhat critical of Soko, Uenaka gives an appropriate understanding of both his personal bias and the accepted historical narrative of Soko, and his place in the evolving Japanese culture. Uenaka presents a look at Japanese society both in the time of Soko, and as the nation developed from agrarian and isolated to global contender that rivaled that of the Western world. When one considers the strength of bushido in Japanese culture, it is imperative to look at its largely Confucianism-based roots. Early military theorists such as Soko were heavily influenced by and believed utterly in the truth of the Confucian philosophy which prevailed in his time and attempted to live in perfect conformity with its demand.[2] In some ways, Yamaga founded his own school of military science, and he is best known to later scholars for his systematic exposition of bushido, ‘ the Way of the Samurai, much of which still applies to Japanese society today.[3] This code the samurai held so strictly to consisted of many expectations, but none perceived so important as honor. Inazo Nitobe, author of the popular Bushido : The Soul of Japan, discusses the principles that define the code of bushido, especially the eight virtues that dominate the principles followed for well over a century, including present-day followers of bushido. Nitobe’s contribution to the discussion of bushido, however, it often claimed as a romanticization of bushido and its actual implementation in Japan, and it is easy to understand this, as Nitobe often discusses only the benevolent aspect, and glosses over the more unsavory actions of earlier samurai. There are also scholars who present the fact Nitobe himself was a Christian convert, and authors such as Christopher Harding present a look at how these new ideals would shape the perceptions of bushido’s meaning. High profile Japanese Christians such as Uchimura Kanzo and Nitobe talked openly about Christianity as a new form of the ancient practice. In short, these ideals presented by such theologies were less about Japan’s passive acceptance of Christianity, and more about Japan turning Christianity into something better by enmeshing bushido principles into their religious practices.
Yamaga’s lasting contribution to the formation of the so-called Japanese spirit was his codification of samurai ethics, transforming it into a system that was intended to be of practical relevance to daily life even in peacetime, and infusing it with nationalism, an element that greatly appealed to later samurai who found themselves having to deal with the problems caused by the incursions of foreign power.[4] Yamaga himself was heavily influenced by Sun Tsu’s Art of War as well as his own devoutly held beliefs in Confucianism when creating the code of ethics that dominated Japan and its growing militarized culture until the end of the Second World War. After the Meiji Restoration, Japan rapidly modernized, adopting Western military and governmental systems. However, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, there was a resurgence of interest in bushido as a symbol of national pride and identity. The government sought to use bushido ideals to inspire the modern military and instill a sense of discipline and duty in the new, industrialized Japan. During this time, bushido was romanticized and presented as a unique and integral part of Japan’s national character. Figures like Nitobe and others helped popularize bushido as a moral and philosophical system. Yamaga Soko’s ideas, especially his blending of Confucianism and samurai virtues, became part of this narrative, portraying bushido as a cultural cornerstone. Soko’s ideas about the samurai as ethical leaders influenced military leaders in the modern Imperial Japanese Army. As Japan sought to expand its empire, military leaders were encouraged to embody the bushido code, emphasizing loyalty, honor, and a sense of duty to the emperor. The ethos of the samurai spirit, as shaped by thinkers like Yamaga, was cited as a model for military discipline and conduct.
Yamaga Soko’s influence on military culture and bushido persisted far beyond his time, shaping not only the ideals and ethics of samurai in the Edo period but also the ideological underpinnings of Japan’s modern military. His integration of Confucian principles with the samurai code provided a lasting framework for thinking about duty, virtue, and leadership. By the early 20th century, these ideas were harnessed to foster a sense of national identity and pride, ultimately influencing Japan’s wartime culture. His legacy remains a key chapter in the evolution of bushido from a personal ethical code to a powerful national ideology. Soko’s own words in his Haisho Zampitsu discuss the idealism of the Japanese of the time regarding being seemingly untouchable by foreign powers, yet military expansion for Japan must have been almost divine. Soko states that of course, as regards the way of martial valor, Japan conquered the three kingdoms of Korea and made them tributary states, it invaded Koguryo and captured its royal castle,142 and it set up a military headquarters on foreign soil; thus, from ancient down to modern times, Japan has always won martial glory throughout the world, emphasizing that almost divine idealism of destiny.[5] While this echoes through claims of many world leaders throughout the twentieth century, often maliciously excusing atrocities, for Soko the idealism was largely benevolent.
The Twentieth Century and World War
The Meji Period, or Meji Restoration, would see the end of the former Shogunate and return the emperor to a state of power, albeit still relatively nominal. To understand how Japan became a military-state, heavily influenced by Soko’s bushido ethics even through the twentieth century, it is important to understand that many of those with influence and power within the newly established Empire of Japan were former samurai, reclaiming much of what was taken and silenced by the former Shogunate, and would serve largely as the rulers of Japan under the figurehead-like Emperor. The Meji period would be characterized by large military presence, becoming an identity that would come to define Japan until the end of the Second World War, though this political and cultural shift began with the unrest of Japan’s trade with Western powers, and would not end until 1947. The fall of the Tokugawa Shogunate comes to little surprise to scholars of Japanese history, especially when considering the already unpopular means of rule prior to the arrival of Western personalities, but the rapidly increasing antagonistic behavior of many prominent figures from Kyoto in response to treaties and appeasement of the Western powers all but ensured the fall of the Shogunate. Many of those who would become leaders of the Meji Era were young samurai during this period of instability and uncertainty, thus aimed their prowess and practice on former Tokugawa clan members and foreigners alike. Japan would enter a period of extremism and clashes between the formerly feudal and agrarian nation and its modern invaders, however by 1864 it was clear the West was far more militarily superior. By 1866 various small Western-backed resistance began to form and push back against the Shogunate, often with unexpected success due to the more proficient and modern firearms used by Western powers. With the formal institution of the emperor restored in 1868 and the capital of Japan moved to Edo, modern day Tokyo, Japan left its agrarian, decentralized former means of rule behind and crossed into the modern global climate, including claiming Korea in its name.
In 1904, Japan would eye more than just smaller local territories in a move that would establish itself as one of the most determined, cohesive and disciplined militaristic nations in the world. The Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1902 saw Japan gain her first official western ally in Great Britain. The agreement stated that should either power enter a state of war because of attack by two, or more, powers that the other nation must render aid. However, should the nation enter a war with only one other nation, the ally is excused from involvement. Japan needed resources, and found that opportunity in Port Arthur, having already taken issue with Russian advances in Manchuria and disagreements between Japanese-occupied Chinese provinces and Russian officials over the use of railway lines. In short, the Chinese and Russian agreement to share the Trans-Siberian Railroad lines through China did not sit well with the Japanese when they effectively became the ruling nation for those areas of Chinese lands. When the Japanese attacked Port Arthur in 1904, they did so with no formal declaration of war. In just three short decades, the Japanese military had developed into a focused, well-disciplined and expansive force that placed high importance on Soko’s bushido code, and though romanticized by Nitobe and many western scholars, would become known to global players for its rigid and often unforgiving interpretations by its Japanese devotees.
Imperial Japan would see an ever-changing militarized national environment and identity that would shape every facet of Japanese existence until the second half of the twentieth century. Author and historian Oleg Benesch discusses much of this throughout his “Inventing the Way of the Samurai: Nationalism, Internationalism, and Bushidō in Modern Japan”, especially the evolution of bushido. As the Japanese began their expansion campaigns, other influences would begin to be whispered abut, such as socialism, anarchism and other forms of government theory. As the nation faced differing internal crisis, bushido continued to play an important role in attempts to mold public behavior.[6] Bushido was more thoroughly disseminated by the government through school and military education texts and other means, especially the national morality movement which emphasized traditional values, imperial loyalty, filial piety and patriotism.[7] This would come to spread throughout Japanese military ranks and students especially after the Russo-Japanese War when Japan would heavily pursue expansion and military conquest.
The Russo-Japanese War, fought between 1904 and 1905, was a conflict between the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan over control of territories in East Asia, primarily Manchuria and Korea. The war marked Japan’s emergence as a major military power in Asia and significantly weakened Russia’s influence in the region.Russia and Japan both sought control over the strategically important regions of Manchuria and Korea. Japan had already established influence over Korea, while Russia was expanding its reach into Manchuria, especially with the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway. After a series of defeats, and with domestic unrest growing (especially following the 1905 Russian Revolution), Russia sought peace.
Before the Russo-Japanese War, Japan was considered very little threat or concern to the Western world. However, with their unapologetic defeat of Russia, Japan began to earn the notice of more prominent political figures, namely Great Britain, France, and the United States, who began to watch the newly emerged imperial nation with interest…and cautious curiosity. The victory established Japan as the first Asian power to defeat a European nation in modern warfare, marking its rise as a global military power. The defeat weakened Russia’s position in East Asia and contributed to growing dissatisfaction with the Tsarist regime, leading to the 1905 Russian Revolution and marked the beginning of Japan’s expansionist policies in Asia, which would later contribute to tensions leading to World War II. The victory also boosted Japan’s prestige internationally and was a significant moment in the history of imperialism, as an Asian nation defeated a major European power.
On the eve of Japan’s declaration of war on Germany in August 1914, the nation was already considered a formidable and aggressive militaristic nation, having decimated Russia only a decade before, becoming the first Asian nation to soundly defeat a major Western power and shocking major political players across the globe. Japan’s military, while deeply influenced by its traditional culture and warrior ethos, including bushido, was also adapting to modern warfare and new military strategies. Before World War I, Bushido had already been deeply embedded in the fabric of Japanese culture, especially in the military. As a member of the Allied Powers, Japan participated primarily in naval operations and in fighting against German colonies in the Pacific, rather than engaging in direct combat on European battlefields. Even though the samurai were no longer a formal military class by this point, Bushido’s legacy had a lasting influence on the Japanese officer corps, particularly in terms of their outlook on duty, self-sacrifice, and loyalty to the emperor.
Japanese soldiers, while not samurai in the traditional sense, were often taught to uphold ideals of personal honor, duty to the emperor, and an unshakable resolve. This mentality was crucial in shaping Japan’s wartime ethos in subsequent conflicts, particularly in World War II. Despite not being directly involved in the major European land battles, Japan’s contribution to the Allied war effort was significant, and the military itself was steeped in a strong sense of discipline and duty—values that aligned with the bushido code. Military leaders continued to promote ideas of self-discipline, bravery, and self-sacrifice, often framing these virtues in terms of serving the emperor and the state.
Japan’s victory in the war allowed it to join the victorious Allied powers at the peace negotiations. Japan was granted permanent membership in the League of Nations, signaling its recognition as a global power. It also gained territories, including parts of China and Pacific islands, which expanded its empire. Japan also began to integrate more deeply into global economic and cultural exchanges. The war allowed Japan to increase its exports and modernize its economy, and it used this economic power to further its influence, particularly in Asia. Additionally, Japan sought to promote its culture abroad, seeking to establish itself as a unique and modern civilization that could serve as a model for other non-Western nations.
During the First World War, Japan utilized bushido both as a cultural and military philosophy that reinforced its martial ethos while navigating the complex dynamics of international diplomacy and conflict. As Japan’s role in world affairs grew, so did its sense of national pride, rooted in bushido’s values of honor and duty. Never had an eastern power risen from a civilization of agrarian farmers ritualized in ancient methods of warfare into a modern military force comparable to that of western allies.
World War II and Post-War Demilitarization
After the First World War, Japan would steamroll into a formidable power, and one of the most disciplined and nationalist militaries of the modern period. The Imperial Japanese military would revive the samurai-era principle of heigaku, the study of military affairs, or, more figuratively, the way of the warrior.[8] Heigaku had its origins in China with classics such as Sun Tzu (The Art of War) and other works that deal with military strategy, tactics, and organization. However, in Japan, heigaku was somewhat unique in that it had evolved out of actual battle
experiences during the Warring States Period, and bushido was heavily influenced within its practices. [9]
Bushido principles once again are exemplified during conflicts on Okinawa by way of kamikaze pilots. This method of warfare required personal sacrifice of the life of the pilot, but it was in the greater good of the nation. To die for Japan was of the highest honor, therefore, the kamikaze was incredibly committed. Vice Admiral Truman J. Hedding, U.S. Navy, described the kamikaze as, you might say, traditionally Japanese. The warrior in Japan has always had a leading role, like the samurai warriors, which developed a military philosophy that the Japanese armed forces had. I was very interested in how you can get these pilots to take off on a kamikaze mission, knowing they were not going to return. The instinct that we all have to [stay] alive is so strong—how did they overcome it?[10] Admiral Hedding then describes the interrogation of Japanese Captain Mitsuo Fuchida. When asking Captain Fuchida how the kamikaze pilots were convinced to give their lives so easily, he simply replies “It’s probably very difficult for you to understand, but to us it’s bushido.”[11] Captain Fuchida’s comment was the sentiment present overall, both in the military and civilian population of imperial Japan, especially at the height of 1942 as Japan dominated the Pacific.
Even as the United States dropped the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki prompting a swift end to Japanese global power, a controversial decision still widely debated throughout the military and social history communities to this day, the Japanese culture and more admirable militaristic concepts began to spread throughout global communities, but nowhere more prevalent than in the United States. Due to the conditions required in the Japanese surrender in 1945, the Japanese military was significantly decreased in size, with many restrictions in place. As such, Japan, seeing much of their involvement in the war a source of great shame to the nation, quickly attempted to shed their militaristic imperial image, and began focusing other areas of potential to maintain their global presence.
Modern Era
Following Japan’s surrender in 1945, the American-led Allied occupation, under General Douglas MacArthur, aimed to demilitarize and democratize Japan. The samurai class and its associated codes of honor and martial ethics were seen as remnants of militarism and feudalism, both of which had contributed to Japan’s aggressive behavior during the war. As part of efforts to demilitarize Japan, the occupation authorities sought to dismantle the ideals of bushido as part of the broader discrediting of Japanese militarism. The bushido ethos, which had glorified self-sacrifice, loyalty to the emperor, and martial prowess, was reassessed considering its association with wartime ideology and the extreme militaristic nationalism that led to Japan’s participation in the war. Despite efforts to suppress it, bushido continued to hold a place in Japanese cultural consciousness. In the post-war years, scholars, intellectuals, and cultural figures reinterpreted Bushido, often focusing on its ethical aspects, such as duty, honor, and self-discipline, rather than its militaristic and feudal components.
Author William Tsutsui is one of the more formidable contributors of study on Japanese Culture and Globalization. As the study of Japanese culture in a global aspect is relatively new to the historical field, at least more than just the assessment of the Japanese military and strategy of the Pacific War era, his work is exceptionally worth note. Compared to the icons of American pop culture-Mickey Mouse, Elvis and Coca Cola-things like anime, karaoke contests, and ramen noodles seem like newcomers to the global marketplace.[12] But the world’s embrace of Japanese popular culture at the start of the twenty-first century did not happen overnight or even over the past two decades when Japanese creations flooded global media.[13]
Following the mass demilitarization of the Japanese Imperial Army and Navy after the end of World War II, Japan would be involved in other conflicts as an ally of the United States once more, however the island nation would rapidly become a technological and industrial marvel, spurring a drastic import of not only Japanese manufacturing, but of fashion, media, cuisine and more. In contemporary Japanese culture, bushido remains a symbol of honor, discipline, and personal integrity, even though the traditional samurai class no longer exists. The modern interpretation of bushido is less about military duty and more about personal conduct, ethics, and societal values.
Japanese popular culture, especially films and anime, continues to engage with the ideals of bushido, albeit in a stylized or romanticized way. Samurai-themed films, often set in the Edo period or earlier, present characters who live by a strict moral code, emphasizing duty, loyalty, and sacrifice. Even when samurai are portrayed as antiheroes or in dystopian settings, their adherence to bushido ideals is a central element. Video games and cuisine speak to a wide range of demographic and economic class, thus fueling further influence of Japanese culture.
Bushido’s influence can also be seen in modern discussions around personal ethics and conduct. For instance, Japanese people often value the cultivation of one’s character and the development of personal virtues over time. Many Japanese educational institutions emphasize self-discipline, respect for others, and the development of moral character, all of which are grounded in traditional bushido ideals. Due to the influence of anime and manga, these principles have reached both children and adults alike, largely due to the popularity of animated shows like Dragonball and Pokemon during the 1990’s and early 2000’s, and these shows often discuss themes of bushido and Japanese culture in a manner that would reach a large age-range of audience.
Japan’s unique society and culture is both a product of centuries of isolation and separation from the international community and a result of a specific selection of Western and modern aspects since the 19th century.[14] Even though Japan, much like other neighboring East Asian countries, has been influenced by China and Chinese culture since the classical times, ever since the United States ended Japan’s long period of relative isolation in the 19th century, Japan has opened up to and embraced Western cultures from regions such as Europe and North America. While learning from other countries, Japan also successfully retains its own unique and beautiful culture.[15]
Conclusion
The legacy of Bushido and its association with militarism had profound effects on Japan’s culture, particularly in the context of World War II. Ideals of honor, duty, and self-sacrifice were promoted to justify extreme wartime actions and devotion to the emperor. This militaristic interpretation of Bushido helped fuel the nation’s expansionist ambitions and fostered a culture of unquestioning loyalty, often at the expense of individual rights and dissent. However, after Japan’s defeat in 1945, the post-war period saw a rejection of aggressive militarism, and Bushido’s connection to violence became increasingly controversial. In contemporary Japan, Bushido has evolved into a symbol of cultural identity rather than a strictly military code. The principles of Bushido, such as respect for discipline, loyalty, and self-improvement, are evident in modern Japanese society, particularly in the fields of business, sports, and personal development. While the aggressive militaristic interpretations of Bushido have faded, its influence continues to resonate in Japanese cultural practices, including martial arts (like judo and kendo), the corporate world, and in everyday life, where respect for hierarchy, group harmony, and collective effort are often emphasized.
Globally, the fascination with Bushido has transcended Japan’s borders, influencing not only martial arts and movies (such as Akira Kurosawa’s Seven Samurai) but also the broader perception of Japan’s unique cultural ethos. The enduring appeal of Bushido as a symbol of integrity, strength, and self-discipline continues to shape how the world views Japanese values and society. In sum, while the historical link between Bushido and Japanese militarism shaped Japan’s imperial past, today’s cultural expressions of Bushido focus on the ideals of personal integrity, respect, and commitment to the greater good. This transformation reflects the changing needs of Japan’s society and the complex legacy of Bushido in both national and global contexts.
Bushido’s impact is evident in Japan’s business culture, which has also influenced global practices. Japanese companies are often admired for their emphasis on teamwork, dedication, and continuous improvement, values that align closely with Bushido principles. This business approach has contributed to Japan’s reputation as a leader in technology, efficiency, and innovation, further cementing the global spread of its cultural influence. Also, increasing global interest in philosophy and personal development has brought attention to the more spiritual and ethical aspects of Bushido. The code’s focus on integrity, responsibility, and honor provides a compelling framework for those seeking to live by principles that transcend national boundaries. As a result, Bushido has found relevance not only in Japan but also in the lives of individuals worldwide who seek guidance on how to live with purpose and character.
In conclusion, Bushido’s influence on Japanese martial arts, popular culture, business practices, and personal philosophy has been key to spreading Japanese culture globally. Through its timeless emphasis on discipline, respect, and self-improvement, Bushido offers a window into Japan’s rich cultural heritage, resonating with people around the world and fostering a greater appreciation for Japan’s values and traditions.
References
Uenaka, Shuzo. “Last Testament in Exile. Yamaga Sokō’s Haisho Zampitsu.” Monumenta Nipponica 32, no. 2 (1977): 125–52. https://doi.org/10.2307/2384025.
Maeda, Tsutomu. “Heigaku and Bushidō: Military Thought in the Tokugawa World.” In The Tokugawa World, edited by Gary P. Leupp and De-min Tao, 902–24. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2022. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=mlf&AN=202329875979&site=eds-live&scope=site.
Oleg Benesch. 2014. Inventing the Way of the Samurai: Nationalism, Internationalism, and Bushidō in Modern Japan. Vol. First edition. The Past & Present Book Series. Oxford: OUP Oxford. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=nlebk&AN=830608&site=eds-live&scope=site.
Harding, Christopher. 2020. A History of Modern Japan. Tuttle Publishing.
Barrow, Jim. 2022. Modern History of Japan: Japanese History from the Meji Period to the Present. Independent.
Captivating History. 2022. Modern Japan: A Captivating Guide to Modern Japanese.
Inazō Nitobe, and George M Oshiro. 2002. Bushido: The Soul of Japan. Tokyo; New York; London: Kodansha International.
Lancaster, Clay. 1963. The Japanese Influence in America.
Alt, Matt. 2021. Pure Invention: How Japan Made the Modern World. New York: Crown.
Tsutsui, William M. 2010. Japanese Popular Culture and Globalization. Ann Arbor, Mi: Association for Asian Studies.
Pyle, Kenneth B. 2018. Japan in the American Century. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
EU-Japan Centre for Industrial Cooperation. 2024. “Society & Culture | EU-Japan.” EU-Japan Centre for Industrial Cooperation: Society and Culture. May 2024. https://www.eu-japan.eu/eubusinessinjapan/about-japan/background/society-culture.
Japan Educational Travel. n.d. “Traditional Culture.” JAPAN Educational Travel. Japan National Tourism Organization. https://education.jnto.go.jp/en/why-japan/traditional-culture/.
Hedding, Vice Adm. Truman J. 2020. “To Us It’s Bushido.” U.S. Naval Institute. March 1, 2020. https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2020/april/us-its-bushido.
[1] William Tsutsui. Japanese Popular Culture and Globalization.
[2]Shuzo Uenaka. “Last Testament in Exile. Yamaga Sokō’s Haisho Zampitsu.”
[3] Shuzo Uenaka. “Last Testament in Exile. Yamaga Sokō’s Haisho Zampitsu.”
[4] Shuzo Uenaka. “Last Testament in Exile. Yamaga Sokō’s Haisho Zampitsu.”
[5] Shuzo Uenaka. “Last Testament in Exile. Yamaga Sokō’s Haisho Zampitsu.”
[6] Oleg Benesch. Inventing the Way of the Samurai : Nationalism, Internationalism, and Bushidō in Modern Japan.
[7] Oleg Benesch. Inventing the Way of the Samurai : Nationalism, Internationalism, and Bushidō in Modern Japan.
[8] Tsutomu Maeda. “Heigaku and Bushidō: Military Thought in the Tokugawa World.”
[9] Tsutomu Maeda. “Heigaku and Bushidō: Military Thought in the Tokugawa World.”
[10] Truman J. Hedding. “To Us It’s Bushido.”
[11] Truman J. Hedding. “To Us It’s Bushido.”
[12] William Tsutsui. Japanese Popular Culture and Globalization.
[13] William Tsutsui. Japanese Popular Culture and Globalization.
[14] EU-Japan Centre for Industrial Cooperation. “Society & Culture | EU-Japan.”
[15] Japan Educational Travel. “Traditional Culture.”
